We consider the interpretation of ''spread F'' ionograms, particularly those echoes that determine most of the radio bandwidth of the phenomenon. We compare expectations based on total internal reflection with theoretical descriptions based on underdense scattering. We conclude that ''Rayleigh,'' ''Bragg,'' and ''diffuse multiple-refractive'' radio scattering theories are not consistent with observed properties of these echoes. The total-reflection interpretation is shown to be consistent with rocket and satellite data. Evidence for multiple refractive scatter is found, but it neither greatly nor subtly extends the observed radio bandwidth. Ionograms therefore indicate comprehensively the range of plasma densities within view of the ionosonde, even in conditions of spread F. Using digital ionosonde observations, much can be learned of the spatial structures of plasma density responsible for spread F at auroral and equatorial latitudes. As an example, we suggest how contemporary theory and simulations of the equatorial ''bubble'' phenomenon may be reconciled with the distinctive equatorial spread F pattern. ¿ American Geophysical Union 1996