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Gotwols & Irani 1980
Gotwols, B.L. and Irani, G.B. (1980). Optical determination of the phase velocity of short gravity waves. Journal of Geophysical Research 85: doi: 10.1029/JC085iC07p03964. issn: 0148-0227.

Images of short wind-driven gravity waves were taken from an offshore platform, using a charge coupled devide television camera recording diffuse sky radiance reflected from the ocean surface. A two-dimensional power spectrum was calculated from nine statistically independent images. The resultant ensemble-averaged spectrum exhibited good statistical stability and provided information on the angular spread and direction of the wave components present. One-dimensional sampling of each image in a sequence allowed a space-time image to be constructed which clearly shows the effects of wave dispersion as well as the modulation of the phase velocities of the short wavelength waves by the long wavelength components. An ensemble averaged space-time spectrum, when combined with the directional parameters, is compared with the predicitions of linear gravity wave dispersion theory. Two distinct wave systems were present: the local wind driven system showed a space time spectrum in agreement with linear theory out to ~1 cyc/m, but with excess phase velocity at higher spatial frequencies. The second wave system, which was presumably generated by a distant wind field, showed a deficiency in phase velocity when compared to linear theory.

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Journal
Journal of Geophysical Research
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American Geophysical Union
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